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Main articles: History of China, History of People's Republic of China, History of the Republic of China
China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. It became a large united country with an advanced culture at a very early stage, outpacing most of the world in areas such as art and science.
Since around 1000 BC China consisted of many small kingdoms. All of them were unified under one emperor in 221 BC by the Qin state, ushering in the Qin Dynasty. Over the course of centuries, China underwent periods of unity and disunity, order and disorder.
In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of Central Asia, while simultaneously falling behind Europe technologically. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European imperialism while simultaneously extending control into Central Asia.
In 1912, after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the Emperor of China disappeared and the Republic of China was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War. The latter ended in 1949 with the Communist Party of China in control of Mainland China. The CPC established a communist state—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, the ROC government of the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the Western bloc and the United Nations until the 1970s, when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC.
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Main article: Politics of Imperial China , Politics of the People's Republic of China, Politics of the Republic of China
After the Qin Empire unification, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, principalities, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. However, ultimately, the emperor had the centralized authority. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the prime minister. Sometimes political power, however, fell into the hands of the officials, eunuchs, or relatives.
Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples).
The historical capitals of China were mostly in the east. The four most commonly designated capitals are Nanjing, Beijing, Chang'an (today Xi'an), and Luoyang. Official languages once included Chinese, Mongol, and Manchu.
In 1912, the Republic of China attempted to establish itself as a representative democracy, but immediately collapsed into a one-party dictatorship under the Nationalist Party. It was able to transform itself into a functioning multi-party representative democracy only after the Communists took control of the mainland in 1949 and the ROC moved to Taiwan. Meanwhile, the People's Republic of China has continued to operate as a totalitarian one-party state to the present.
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