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Freud trained as a medical doctor, and consistently claimed that his research methods and conclusions were scientific. Nevertheless, his research and practice were condemned by many of his peers. Moreover, both critics and followers of Freud have observed that his basic claim, that many of our conscious thoughts and actions are motivated by unconscious fears and desires, implicitly challenges universal and objective claims about the world.
Clinical psychologists, who seek to treat mental illness, relate to Freudian psychoanalysis in different ways. Some clinical psychologists have modified this approach and have developed a variety of " psychodynamic " models and therapies. Other clinical psychologists reject Freud's model of the mind, but have adapted elements of his therapeutic method, especially his reliance on patients' talking as a form of therapy. Experimental psychologists—who normally belong to the behaviorism camp—generally reject Freud's methods and theories. Like Freud, Psychiatrists train as medical doctors, but—like most medical doctors in Freud's time—most reject his theory of the mind, and generally rely more on drugs than talk in their treatments. There are, however, Psychiatrists that are also trained in psychoanalysis and treat their patients using a mixture of both treatments.
A paper by Lydiard H. Horton, read in 1915 at a joint meeting of the American Psychological Association and the New York Academy of Sciences, called Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate" and noted that "rank confabulations...appear to hold water, psychoanalytically".
Anthony Grayling, Reader in Philosophy at the University of London, and a Fellow of St Anne's College, Oxford, writing in The Guardian in 2002, said "Philosophies that capture the imagination never wholly fade....But as to Freud's claims upon truth, the judgment of time seems to be running against him."
Patients whose case studies were published by Freud, with pseudonyms substituted for their names:
People on whom psychoanalytic observations were published but who were not patients:
Other patients:
Freud had many well-known colleagues who shared his interest in psychoanalytic theory, dubbed "the Neo-Freudians". Ultimately, many of those associated with him came to a parting of the ways over matters related to psychoanalytic dogma. Other psychologists were influenced by Freud's thought, though not all of them were professionally associated with him.
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