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Dogs thrive in small social groups or pack s which from their cynomorphic (dog) viewpoint includes humans. Dog packs are characterized by companionate hierarchy, in which each individual has a rank, and in which there is intense loyalty within the group. Dogs thrive in human society because their relationships with humans mimic their natural social patterns. The dog is always aware of its rank relative to other individuals in the group. An assertive dog may consider itself the alpha animal, considering its human owner to be subordinate.
Dogs, like wolves, establish a hierarchy through aggressive play and roughhousing along a continuum of dominance and submission. When kept as pets, dogs include humans in this hierarchy. It is important for successful socialization that puppies participate with their littermates in learning to relate to other dogs. Dogs learn to successfully relate to other dogs by keeping the peace rather than constantly fighting to reestablish this hierarchy.
Dominant dogs generally take the initiative and are more active than less dominant dogs. Displays of dominance include standing above or over other dogs, placing a paw on other dogs, holding the tail and ears erect, looking directly at other dogs, circling and sniffing other dogs, growling if the other dog moves, and aggressive marking of territory with urine. Submissive displays mirror dominant displays and include adopting a posture that is lower than other dogs, such as crouching, rolling over on the back and exposing the abdomen, lowering the tail—even tucking it beneath the legs, flattening of the ears, averting the gaze, nervously licking or swallowing, dribbling of urine, and freezing or fleeing when other dogs are encountered.
If things go well, the dominant/submissive social structure of dogs avoids conflict and enforces social stability. Poorly socialized dogs who are inept at establishing dominance hierarchy may find themselves involved in unwanted conflicts, especially from the viewpoint of their human companions; as may people who misunderstand dog behavior or who have inadvertently placed themselves in a disadvantageous position within the dominance submissive hierarchy. Such situations may require expert help from professionals skilled in canine psychology.
It is a mistake to anthropomorphize the dominance/submission behavior of a pet or to mistake it for characteristics more appropriately applied to humans. It is undesirable for a dog to be dominant relative to its master or mistress. One should not go so far in rewarding "bravery" or "boldness" that in fulfilling a dog's wants it begins to feel it is the boss. Likewise, it is generally unwise that a dog consider him or herself "the equal of any dog", because unnecessary and destructive conflict can result; rewarding a dog's aggressive behavior may eventually backfire. Likewise, viewing a submissive dog, who is simply displaying common sense, as being a low-quality dog or a cowardly dog is inappropriate. Never continue to discipline a dog after it has adopted a submissive posture; from the dog's viewpoint, it has conceded the point and is at a loss as to what more it might do to communicate its acceptance of your dominance.
Dogs value the companionship of the others in their "pack" and are sometimes distressed if they are separated from it. Typical reactions when a dog is separated from the pack or from his human companions are barking, howling, digging, and chewing. These activities may distress their human companions, who may need to leave dogs alone for a period of time.
Nothing is more pleasurable to dogs than spending time with and interacting with other dogs. Roughhousing and chasing one another are favorite activities. Off-leash dog parks can be good places for dogs to exercise and interact with other dogs when all owners take responsibility for their dogs' behavior. When quiet, dogs especially love lying about with their companions, favoring spots with a good view.
There are numerous dog breeds, over 800 being recognised by various kennel clubs worldwide. No dog breed is truly purebred. All dog breeds have been derived from mixed-breed dog populations. Moreover, many dogs, especially outside the United States and Western Europe, belong to no recognized breed.
A few basic breed types have evolved gradually during the domesticated dog's relationship with man over the last 10,000 or more years, but most modern breeds are of relatively recent derivation. Many of these are the product of a deliberate process of artificial selection. Because of this, some breeds are highly specialized, and there is extraordinary morphological diversity across different breeds. Despite these differences, dogs are able to distinguish dogs from other kinds of animal.
The definition of a dog breed is a matter of some controversy. Some groups use a definition that ultimately requires extreme in-breeding to qualify. Dogs that are bred in this manner often end up with severe health problems. Other organizations define a breed more loosely, such that an individual may be considered of one breed as long as, say, three of its grandparents were of that breed. These considerations come into play among breeders who enter their dogs in dog show competitions. Purebred dogs frequently suffer from serious inherited health and behavioral problems, although by no means a majority of purebred dogs. Even prize-winning purebred dogs are sometimes the victim of crippling genetic defects due to inbreeding.
In February 2004, the Canine Studies Institute in Aurora, Ohio, managed to arrange all breeds of dog into ten categories, according to Darwinian Evolutionary principles. [1]
The behavior and appearance of a dog of a particular breed can be predicted fairly accurately, while mixed-breed dogs show a broad range of innovative appearance and behavior.
Mixed-breed dogs are dogs that do not belong to specific breeds, being mixtures of two or more. Mixed breeds or dogs with no purebred ancestry are in general terms no better or worse than purebred dogs as companions, pets, working dogs, or competitors in dog sports. Sometimes mixed-breed dogs are deliberately bred, for example, the Cockapoo, a mixture of Cocker Spaniel and Minature Poodle. Such deliberate crosses may display hybrid vigor and other desirable traits, but can also lack one or more of the desired traits of their parents, such as temperament or a particular colour or coat.
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