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A professor is a senior teacher and researcher, usually in a college or university.1 Overview
Professors give lectures and seminars in their field of study, such as science or literature. They also do advanced research in their fields and are supposed to do community service (including advisory functions, such as for the government) and train young academics who should replace them. The balance of these four classic fields of professorial tasks depends heavily on the institution, place (country), and time. For example, professors at research universities in the U.S. (and all European universities) are exclusively promoted on the basis of their research achievements.
2 Differences
The basic difference between types of professor according to national academic system is that in Canada and the United States, the designation is based on career, whereas in Europe, it is based on position. That means that if a North American Assistant Professor is performing particularly well, she or he can be promoted to Associate Professor, and if this is the case again, on to (full) Professor. In the Continental European system, the different fields and sub-fields of teaching and research are allotted certain (professorial) chairs, and one can only become a professor if one is appointed to such a chair (which then has to be free, i.e., unoccupied, of course). Therefore, the different professorial ranks can actually not be compared with each other.
3 Tenure
A key concept is that of tenure. A professor who holds tenure is virtually indismissable and appointed for life. In theory, professors are free to hold and advance controversial views, as the faculty generally insists on academic freedomAcademic freedom is a widely used and championed phrase, but an often poorly defined concept with different meanings in different cultures and different contexts. It can refer to the alleged right of students, teachers or academic institutions to do or be. Tenure was thus introduced to preserve academic autonomy and integrity, i.e. the professor was supposed to be kept out of current political or other controversies of the public because it was recognized that this was beneficial for state, society, and academe in the long run. Tenure has recently become under attack by those who want a more business-like approach to universities, including performance review, audits, performance-based salaries, etc.
4 Survey of the Main Systems and concepts
4.1 North American
4.1.1 Main positions:
- assistant professor: the entry-level position, for which one usually needs a Ph.D., sometimes only a masters degree (at some colleges). The position is never tenured, although in most institutions, the term is used for "tenure-track" positions; that is, the candidate can become tenured.
- associate professor: the mid-level position, usually awarded - in the humanities and social sciences - after the "second book" - although the requirements vary considerably between institutions and departments. Can be tenured or not. In most institutions, the position is tenured, however strictly speaking the position is related to a pay differential and can be awarded to non-tenured persons. If awarded to a non-tenured person, the position is generally tenure-track.
- (full) professor: the senior position. Always tenured.
4.1.2 Other positions:
- professor emeritus: after full professors retire from active duties, they may continue to teach and to be listed; they also draw a very large percentage of their last salary as pension (as tenure is technically for life). NB: The concept has in some places been watered down to include also associate tenured professors; in some systems and institutions, it needs a special act or vote.
- visiting professor: someone visiting another college or university to teach for a limited time; this may be someone who is a professor elsewhere or a distinguished scholar or practitioner who is not.
- adjunct professor: someone who does not have a permanent position at the academic institution; this may be someone with a job outside the academic institution teaching courses in a specialized field; or it may refer to persons hired to teach courses on contractual basis (frequently renewable contracts); it is generally a part-time position, although the number of courses taught can vary from a single course to a full-time load (or even an overload); these positions are generally not obligated to participate in administrative responsibilities at the institution often expected of other full-time professors.
- named chair: a particularly senior full professor who is awarded a specific, endowed chair that has been sponsored by a fund, a person, etc. Named chairs are usually similar to the Continental European model in that they are a position rather than a career rank.
- professor by courtesy: a professor who is primarily and originally associated with one academic department, but has become officially associated with a second department, institute, or program within the university and has assumed a professor's duty in that second department as well. Example: "Henry T. Greely is Professor of Law and Professor, by courtesy, of Genetics at Stanford University". Usually the second courtesy appointment carries with it fewer responsibilities and fewer benefits than a single full appointment.
- professor - research: a professor who does not take on all four of the classic duties (see overview) but instead focuses on research. Typically, such a professor may be invaluable to his university department in procuring research funding and/or in publishing scholarly works, and therefore the department would prefer that he not distract himself with teaching duties that are not directly linked to his research activities.
